Information Delivery
Just as it is important to differentiate information delivery in a general education classroom it is important to understand the impact information delivery has on students with special needs. Many of the following strategies and information delivery systems work for both students with and without special needs. Within this section there will be a discussion of the many different types of strategies that can be utilized by teachers including: flexible forms of grouping, active student responding, visual aids, note-taking, direct instruction, mnemonic devices, and graphic organizers. What remains important, and central to all the information delivery for students with special needs, is a clear focus on the individualization of the information delivery relating to the student's particular needs.
A) Flexible forms of grouping:
Grouping, and making instruction a group-centered activity can promote learning and help reduce problems on large, more complex topics. Students have diverse understandings and knowledge, making grouping a great task for secondary education; students share insights, input ideas, and check one another’s progress as they complete tasks. (Wolpow, 2006) There are a couple different forms of grouping a teacher can utilize: varying group structures, class-wide peer tutoring, and for behavior, group-oriented contingency. By varying group size, function, and roles, student experience different learning environments; while consistency is a valuable technique in education, giving student the chance to work alone, in pairs, large groups, as leaders or followers, or doing different things gives students a wider exposure to academic and social settings. (Fickel, 2000) Class peer tutoring acts in a similar way. Different forms of peer tutoring can be used; task cards, practice, and testing all help students achieve in a classroom. (Heward, 2009) Peer tutoring is a great method of differentiating instruction for exceptional students above and below the class average. Students share their knowledge, help advance their classmates, and get a chance to teach the material. Students receive peer insight, and have the opportunity to take ownership of the information as an instructor. (Blake, Wang, Cartledge, & Gardner, 2000) Finally, group-oriented contingency is a practice where certain rewards and privileges are enjoyed by the group if their behavior meets certain criteria. For example: a teacher uses a spelling list and randomly selects students at the end of the day, if the students spell the word correctly, all students are rewarded, or if a student’s behavior is good, then all other classmates are rewarded for the positive behavior. This is a practice of positive instruction where good behavior is rewarded and students are compelled to achieve more because of their classmates. The findings show all students improved and the achievement gap between average and deficits closes. (Heward, 2009)
B) Active Student Responding (ASR):
“For several decades, research in general and special education has been unequivocal in its support of the positive relationship between students’ active engagement with academic tasks and their achievement. (Brophy. 1986; Swanson and Hoskyn, 2001; Heward, 2009) Having instruction where students are actively participating in, and responding to, the learning is pedagogically a no-brainer. Heward (1994) defines active student response (ASR) as:
“an observable response major instructional antecedents... ASR occurs when a student emits a detectable response to ongoing instruction. The kinds of responses that qualify as ASR are varied as the kind of lessons that are taught. Depending upon the instructional objective, examples of ASR include words read, problems answered,- sentences written- The basic measure of how much ASR a student receives is a frequency count of the number of responses emitted within a given period of instruction.” (Heward , 1994; Heward, 2009)
Depending on the lesson and the benchmark criteria, a student’s response will vary. In a secondary education class student may be working on citing resources and the ASR may be the number of citations completed. If a class is engaging in a peer tutoring session, the ASR would be the number of questions answered in a given period of time. An especially effective form of active student responding is choral responses. “All students in the group responding orally in unison to a question or item presented by the teacher. Choral responding has been around since the days of the one-room schoolhouse and has always been a widely used teaching technique in foreign language classes. Choral responding is the simplest, fastest way to increase ASR in group instruction.” (Wood & Heward, 2007) By setting the content, having the response phrases, and prompting student engagement, choral responding can be a fun method of instruction. In history classes there are common threads throughout historiographies, by using these “catch phrases” teachers can instill quick response knowledge and fun with history topics. A teacher may say, “more land…” and students may respond, “…more problems” to learn about the fall of empires. Or a teacher could ask why Spain visited the New World and how they conquered and the students could respond, “gold, glory, and God” and “guns, germs, and steel.” Small phrases can cement large concepts for students by connecting their previous knowledge with new knowledge. Randomly calling on students can also prompt responses. If student’s know that they will be called on at any point they will pay closer attention. The answer is never required, but calling on students is a form of ASR that can also be effective in promoting student response and engagement.
“an observable response major instructional antecedents... ASR occurs when a student emits a detectable response to ongoing instruction. The kinds of responses that qualify as ASR are varied as the kind of lessons that are taught. Depending upon the instructional objective, examples of ASR include words read, problems answered,- sentences written- The basic measure of how much ASR a student receives is a frequency count of the number of responses emitted within a given period of instruction.” (Heward , 1994; Heward, 2009)
Depending on the lesson and the benchmark criteria, a student’s response will vary. In a secondary education class student may be working on citing resources and the ASR may be the number of citations completed. If a class is engaging in a peer tutoring session, the ASR would be the number of questions answered in a given period of time. An especially effective form of active student responding is choral responses. “All students in the group responding orally in unison to a question or item presented by the teacher. Choral responding has been around since the days of the one-room schoolhouse and has always been a widely used teaching technique in foreign language classes. Choral responding is the simplest, fastest way to increase ASR in group instruction.” (Wood & Heward, 2007) By setting the content, having the response phrases, and prompting student engagement, choral responding can be a fun method of instruction. In history classes there are common threads throughout historiographies, by using these “catch phrases” teachers can instill quick response knowledge and fun with history topics. A teacher may say, “more land…” and students may respond, “…more problems” to learn about the fall of empires. Or a teacher could ask why Spain visited the New World and how they conquered and the students could respond, “gold, glory, and God” and “guns, germs, and steel.” Small phrases can cement large concepts for students by connecting their previous knowledge with new knowledge. Randomly calling on students can also prompt responses. If student’s know that they will be called on at any point they will pay closer attention. The answer is never required, but calling on students is a form of ASR that can also be effective in promoting student response and engagement.
C) Visual aids:
Visual aids are used regularly in social studies classrooms; just as important as reading texts, images help to enhance a student’s understanding of a topic. Generating a presentation, having images on the wall, or using pictures on assignments are all ways a teacher can promote visual learning with students. The aids can come in a variety of forms: pictures, illustrations, graphic organizers, charts, graphs, tables, and slideshows. By utilizing these visual elements on a regular basis and by varying the presentation, students both with and without disabilities can benefit from the addition of visual aids. Specific disorders like ASD can cause students to have language and communication deficits. Cue cards or images can greatly enhance communication with students with communication deficits. (Heward, 2009) Prompting responses, asking questions, or sharing ideas can all be effectively communicated through visual aids.
D) Note-taking:
Note taking is a large part of secondary education and history/social studies. Students will regularly be using notes in lecture or during reading to organize, list, and rewrite data. Many students don’t develop proper note taking skills until after high school. Note-taking is used broadly in middle and high schools; it is important that students have concrete note taking strategies and skills to succeed in class. Methods such as strategic note taking, Cornell and Ferndale notes can be used to enhance notes, meaning making, and connections. (Wolpow, 2006) Additionally, guided notes are teacher-prepared handouts that explicitly describe what to take notes on can reinforce intended learning.
Strategic Note-Taking: “Strategic note taking involves specially designed note paper containing cues such as ‘What do you already know about this topic?’ or ‘List new vocabulary and terms’ that help students organize information and combine new knowledge with prior knowledge.” (Boyle, 2001: Heward, 2009) Such prompts help focus students attention when taking notes making notes longer, more thorough, and better ingrained in student’s memory. When compared to standard note taking strategies, students using strategic note-taking scored higher on memory recall of lecture. (Heward, 2009)
Note-Taking Styles (Click Here for Examples):
There are many different note taking strategies. Using a bulleted outline format can help students organize ideas in a hierarchy, focusing on the main point and detailing with supporting data as the lines indent. The mapping method focuses on the main ideas or themes of a topic, turns it into a question, and then answers the question with simple bullet points leading off the main questions. A well-known and widely-practiced form of note taking is Cornell notes. To take the notes, divide a paper into a third and two thirds vertically with the narrow column on the left. Main ideas are written on the left and supporting points are made in the corresponding right column. Below, there is a section for review a day or two later, intended to reinforce learning and the notes. (Five Note-Taking Methods, 2010) A final form of note taking is Ferndale notes, which are similar to Cornell notes, but adds a column on the left intended for the student’s personal connections, thoughts, or questions. The additional column acts like a pegword, reinforcing knowledge and making a personal connection to the content.
Guided Notes: Guided notes are handouts which improve a student’s understanding of materials, direction of focus, and explicitly outlines the important points of a passage. The purpose of guided notes is: 1) students can identify important info, 2) understand lesson and note correspondence, 3) stay on task, in alignment with the lesson, and 4) improve independent note taking skills. (Heward, 2009) Guided notes can be note outlines, vocabulary cards, or worksheets with blank spaces.
Strategic Note-Taking: “Strategic note taking involves specially designed note paper containing cues such as ‘What do you already know about this topic?’ or ‘List new vocabulary and terms’ that help students organize information and combine new knowledge with prior knowledge.” (Boyle, 2001: Heward, 2009) Such prompts help focus students attention when taking notes making notes longer, more thorough, and better ingrained in student’s memory. When compared to standard note taking strategies, students using strategic note-taking scored higher on memory recall of lecture. (Heward, 2009)
Note-Taking Styles (Click Here for Examples):
There are many different note taking strategies. Using a bulleted outline format can help students organize ideas in a hierarchy, focusing on the main point and detailing with supporting data as the lines indent. The mapping method focuses on the main ideas or themes of a topic, turns it into a question, and then answers the question with simple bullet points leading off the main questions. A well-known and widely-practiced form of note taking is Cornell notes. To take the notes, divide a paper into a third and two thirds vertically with the narrow column on the left. Main ideas are written on the left and supporting points are made in the corresponding right column. Below, there is a section for review a day or two later, intended to reinforce learning and the notes. (Five Note-Taking Methods, 2010) A final form of note taking is Ferndale notes, which are similar to Cornell notes, but adds a column on the left intended for the student’s personal connections, thoughts, or questions. The additional column acts like a pegword, reinforcing knowledge and making a personal connection to the content.
Guided Notes: Guided notes are handouts which improve a student’s understanding of materials, direction of focus, and explicitly outlines the important points of a passage. The purpose of guided notes is: 1) students can identify important info, 2) understand lesson and note correspondence, 3) stay on task, in alignment with the lesson, and 4) improve independent note taking skills. (Heward, 2009) Guided notes can be note outlines, vocabulary cards, or worksheets with blank spaces.
E) Direct Instruction:
Explicit/direct instruction is “a systematic method of teaching with emphasis on proceeding in small steps, checking for student understanding, and achieving active and successful participation by all students.” (Heward, 2009) The practice is one of demonstration-prompt-practice and good for students who need fast-tracked knowledge and remediation. (Stevens & Rosenshine, 1981) When practiced, direct instruction is fast, repetitious, and follows an “I do, we do, you do” approach. Direct instruction teaches students with LDs how to use explicit and systematic techniques by following skills set up in a logical sequence. Over time the instruction “moves from teacher modeling, through guided practice using prompts and cues, to independent and fluent performance by the learner.” (Heward, 2009) Students with learning disabilities can be remediated by direct, intensive, and systematic instruction. Poor instruction is not always a factor in student underachievement, but intensive instruction can help with remediation.
Some examples of direct instruction being used in a secondary history or social studies classroom include the memorization of the presidents of the United States, the U.S. state capitals, the Bill of Rights, learning citation making, researching with primary and secondary source documents, and proper essay format (Implementing Direct Instruction Successfully, 2014)
Some examples of direct instruction being used in a secondary history or social studies classroom include the memorization of the presidents of the United States, the U.S. state capitals, the Bill of Rights, learning citation making, researching with primary and secondary source documents, and proper essay format (Implementing Direct Instruction Successfully, 2014)
F) Mnemonic Devices:
Mnemonic devices are strategies that help students recall specific data. “Mnemonic strategies combine special presentation of information with explicit strategies for recall and are most often used to help students remember large amounts of unfamiliar information or make connections between two of more facts or concepts. Three of the most commonly used mnemonic strategies by special education teachers are letter strategies keyword method, and pegword method.” (Heward, 2009)
Letter Strategies: Acronyms and acrostics are letter strategies. In order to store, recall, and remember large amounts of information we use these strategies to pack information into manageable and memorable portions. (Heward, 2009) A student may be having trouble with the order of operations in math, being able to recall “please excuse my dear aunt Sally,” or PEMDAS, would help students remember that the order of operations in math are parenthesis, exponents, multiplication or division, and addition or subtraction. There are many standard letter strategies in education, but students are inspired to generate their own to individualize their learning and memory recall.
Keyword Method: Keywords link background knowledge with new information. Usually used to decode a word or concept, the keyword method is highly subjective and usually is individualized for the person using the mnemonics. (Heward, 2009) A keyword method that could be used in a secondary social studies classroom is how to remember the capital of South Dakota or Alaska. A student could recall the sentences, “It’s so hot in South Dakota that you Pierre,” or “Juneau the capital of Alaska?” Both sentences require a student to make connections to previous knowledge and then presents them with the information they were trying to recall.
Pegword Method: “The pegword method employs rhyming words for numbers when information to be remembered is numbered of ordered. For example, to remember that Newton’s first law of motion is that objects at rest tend to stay at rest, show a picture of a bun (1) resting. To remember that insects have six legs create a picture of insects on sticks (6).” (Heward, 2009)
Letter Strategies: Acronyms and acrostics are letter strategies. In order to store, recall, and remember large amounts of information we use these strategies to pack information into manageable and memorable portions. (Heward, 2009) A student may be having trouble with the order of operations in math, being able to recall “please excuse my dear aunt Sally,” or PEMDAS, would help students remember that the order of operations in math are parenthesis, exponents, multiplication or division, and addition or subtraction. There are many standard letter strategies in education, but students are inspired to generate their own to individualize their learning and memory recall.
Keyword Method: Keywords link background knowledge with new information. Usually used to decode a word or concept, the keyword method is highly subjective and usually is individualized for the person using the mnemonics. (Heward, 2009) A keyword method that could be used in a secondary social studies classroom is how to remember the capital of South Dakota or Alaska. A student could recall the sentences, “It’s so hot in South Dakota that you Pierre,” or “Juneau the capital of Alaska?” Both sentences require a student to make connections to previous knowledge and then presents them with the information they were trying to recall.
Pegword Method: “The pegword method employs rhyming words for numbers when information to be remembered is numbered of ordered. For example, to remember that Newton’s first law of motion is that objects at rest tend to stay at rest, show a picture of a bun (1) resting. To remember that insects have six legs create a picture of insects on sticks (6).” (Heward, 2009)
G) Graphic Organizers:
Graphic organizers are visual-spatial organization of words or concepts, arranged to connect the relationships between the concepts. Graphic organizers serve a wide variety of purposes: displaying taxonomies, comparing ideas, showing sequences, and displaying relationships. There are many different types of graphic organizers, each with a different function and possessing the capacity to be modified and adapted for specialized use. Some of the most common graphic organizers in a secondary education classroom are: Venn diagrams, KWL charts, cause and effect charts, brainstorming webs, and ‘who, what, where, when, why, and how’ charts.
Venn diagrams (Click Here for an Example): The purpose of a Venn diagram is to compare and contrast different ideas. The graphic organizer has a minimum of two circles, where each circle represents a concept and the space within the circle is where qualities of the concept are placed. The circles are placed on one another so each has space where there is overlap and space where there is none. To compare, the commonalities are placed in the overlapping area and to contrast the unique qualities are placed in the independent space. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Know, Want to know, Learned (KWL) charts (Click Here for an Example): KWL charts are designed to help students actively reflect on their background knowledge, what they want to learn, and what they learned throughout a lesson. The chart has three columns labeled: “what you Know,” “what you Want to know,” and “what you Learned.” Students fill in each columns at different points in instruction. To actively recall knowledge, students begin a lesson by recalling everything they can about a given subject in the “what I Know” column. The students then reflect on what they want to know in the self-named second column. After the lesson is completed, the student reflect on their learning and write in the “what you Learned” column. KWL charts are great for student reflection and as assessment tools to gauge the student’s background knowledge, curiosity, and take always. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Cause and effect charts (Click Here for an Example): This chart is meant to show the causal relationship between two or more phenomena. The graphic organizer is a series of boxes connected in a linear path by arrows; the boxes are labeled cause and effect respectively. The chart is filled out by listing an event that caused another event to occur and then placing the events in the linear path in which the events transpired. The organizer is a great tool for focusing on the impacts of events and showing a series of events over time. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Brainstorming webs (Click Here for an Example): A brainstorm web, or concept map, are great tools for highlighting the relationship between concepts. Starting at a single point or concept, lines are drawn outward to highlight subcategories or relationships between ideas. Students can label how ideas are related on the lines that connect the ideas. The primary purpose is to generate a working model of how ideas and concepts are connected and how they interact on a larger, non-linear scale. This graphic organizer is effective at pre-writing papers, showing the relationship between ideas, or presenting a working model of how ideas are organized in an individual’s mind. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
‘Who, what, where, when, why, and how’ charts (Click Here for an Example): This chart focuses on defining the key characteristics of an event by clarifying the “Five Ws+H.” This graphic organizer is great for social studies and history in secondary education. The chart is a set of six rows labeled who, what, where, when, why, or how with the main topic at the top of the page. Students fill out the chart by considering what the different characteristics of the topic is and defining it in the prescribed box. This graphic organizer is a great strategy for clarifying concepts and coming to a deeper understanding of things like historical or current events. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Abstract Concept Anchoring Table: A final form of graphic organization is abstract concept anchoring table. It is a cross between Venn diagram and a KWL chart. There are three columns, “known concepts,” “new concepts,” and “characteristics shared.” The process of using an anchoring table is: 1) announce/name new concept, 2) collect known information, 3) highlight characteristics of the known information, 4) observe characteristics of the new concept, 5) reveal the shared characteristics, 6) state new understanding of new concept. (Heward, 2009) This practice connects previous knowledge to new knowledge and seeks to promote a deeper understanding of old concepts, and new knowledge of new concepts. (Heward, 2009)
Venn diagrams (Click Here for an Example): The purpose of a Venn diagram is to compare and contrast different ideas. The graphic organizer has a minimum of two circles, where each circle represents a concept and the space within the circle is where qualities of the concept are placed. The circles are placed on one another so each has space where there is overlap and space where there is none. To compare, the commonalities are placed in the overlapping area and to contrast the unique qualities are placed in the independent space. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Know, Want to know, Learned (KWL) charts (Click Here for an Example): KWL charts are designed to help students actively reflect on their background knowledge, what they want to learn, and what they learned throughout a lesson. The chart has three columns labeled: “what you Know,” “what you Want to know,” and “what you Learned.” Students fill in each columns at different points in instruction. To actively recall knowledge, students begin a lesson by recalling everything they can about a given subject in the “what I Know” column. The students then reflect on what they want to know in the self-named second column. After the lesson is completed, the student reflect on their learning and write in the “what you Learned” column. KWL charts are great for student reflection and as assessment tools to gauge the student’s background knowledge, curiosity, and take always. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Cause and effect charts (Click Here for an Example): This chart is meant to show the causal relationship between two or more phenomena. The graphic organizer is a series of boxes connected in a linear path by arrows; the boxes are labeled cause and effect respectively. The chart is filled out by listing an event that caused another event to occur and then placing the events in the linear path in which the events transpired. The organizer is a great tool for focusing on the impacts of events and showing a series of events over time. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Brainstorming webs (Click Here for an Example): A brainstorm web, or concept map, are great tools for highlighting the relationship between concepts. Starting at a single point or concept, lines are drawn outward to highlight subcategories or relationships between ideas. Students can label how ideas are related on the lines that connect the ideas. The primary purpose is to generate a working model of how ideas and concepts are connected and how they interact on a larger, non-linear scale. This graphic organizer is effective at pre-writing papers, showing the relationship between ideas, or presenting a working model of how ideas are organized in an individual’s mind. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
‘Who, what, where, when, why, and how’ charts (Click Here for an Example): This chart focuses on defining the key characteristics of an event by clarifying the “Five Ws+H.” This graphic organizer is great for social studies and history in secondary education. The chart is a set of six rows labeled who, what, where, when, why, or how with the main topic at the top of the page. Students fill out the chart by considering what the different characteristics of the topic is and defining it in the prescribed box. This graphic organizer is a great strategy for clarifying concepts and coming to a deeper understanding of things like historical or current events. (Graphic Organizers, 2014)
Abstract Concept Anchoring Table: A final form of graphic organization is abstract concept anchoring table. It is a cross between Venn diagram and a KWL chart. There are three columns, “known concepts,” “new concepts,” and “characteristics shared.” The process of using an anchoring table is: 1) announce/name new concept, 2) collect known information, 3) highlight characteristics of the known information, 4) observe characteristics of the new concept, 5) reveal the shared characteristics, 6) state new understanding of new concept. (Heward, 2009) This practice connects previous knowledge to new knowledge and seeks to promote a deeper understanding of old concepts, and new knowledge of new concepts. (Heward, 2009)